Properties of Poly(B-amino Ester)s

Properties of Poly(B-amino Ester)s The poly(b-amino ester)s, a class of biodegradable cationic polymers, were firstly  prepared by Chiellini in 198340. These polymers were based on poly(amidoamine)s  developed in 1970 by Ferruti41, that contain tertiary amines in their backbones and  can be synthesized by a simple Michael addition reaction of bifunctional amines  and bisacrylamides. However, the interest over the use of poly(b-amino ester)s rised  significantly after its use as transfection reagent at Langer Lab in 200042. The development  of poly(b-amino ester)s emerged by the need to develop a cationic polymer  for gene delivery with high transfection efficiency and long-term biocompatibility  including hydrolyzable moieties easily degradable into non-toxic small molecule  byproducts. The synthesis of this polymer can easily be accomplished: without  necessity of independent preparation of specialized monomers; the use of stoichiometric  amounts of expensive coupling reagents, or amine protecti on strategies prior  to polymerization42. The main general objective of the work of mentioned research  group was to develop a polymer-based non-viral vector more efficient and less cytotoxic  than other cationic polymers used at that time for this purpose (such as,  polyethylenimine (PEI) or poly(L-lysine) (PLL)). In fact, poly(b-amino ester) approach exhibited a particularly attractive basis for  the development of new polymer-based transfection vectors for several reasons: the  polymers contain the required amines (positive charges to complex genetic material);  readily degradable linkages (by hydrolysis of ester bonds in the polymer backbones  may increase the biodegradability and biocompatibility); and multiple analogues  could be synthesized directly from compounds commercially available (easy and inexpensive  synthesis) allowing to tune polymer properties (like buffering capacity)42. Besides being used as transfection vector, PbAEs has been also applied in others  biomedical areas, such as delivery systems for drugs43;44 or proteins45;46, magnetic  resonance imaging agents47;48, or as scaffold for tissue engineering49;50. Synthesis and main physicochemical properties of poly(b-amino ester)s The poly(b-amino ester)s are easily synthesized by the conjugate addition of a primary  amine or bis(secondary amine) and a diacrylate, in a one-step reaction without  any side product that need be removed through further purification steps. It can be  prepared without solvents, catalysts, or complex protecting group strategies42;51. Depending on the ratio of monomers during the synthesis, poly(b-amino ester)s  can be tailored to have either amine- or diacrylate-terminated chains. An excess of  either diacrylate or amine monomer results in a prevalence of acrylate- or amineterminated  poly(b-amino ester)s, respectively52;53. The synthesis is performed either neat (solvent free) or in anhydrous organic  solvents to mitigate hydrolytic degradation during synthesis42;54. Normally, experiments  using solvents occur at lower temperature and over long periods of time  compared to solvent-free formulations. Table 1.3 summarizes the main reactions for  the synthesis of PbAE and the obtained properties such as molecular weight, polydispersity  index (à ), solvent solubility or yield. The most common solvents used are dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO), chloroform  (CHCl3), or dichloromethane (CH2Cl2)57. However, others solvents have also been  used, such as methanol, N,N-dimethylformamide (DMF) or N,N-dimethylacetamide  (DMA)59;61–63. The solvent used has influence on the final molecular weight of the  PbAE. For example, the use of CH2Cl2 typically yields higher molecular weight  polymer compared to THF42. On the other hand, solvent-free polymerizations maximize monomer concentrations,  thus favoring the intermolecular addition over intramolecular cyclization reaction64. The absence of solvent also allows rising temperature resulting in a higher  reaction rate and a lower viscosity of the reacting mixture, assisting to compensate  the higher viscosity found on the solvent-free systems. The combination between  increased monomer concentration and reaction temperature resulting in a reduction  in the reaction time64. The solvent-free reactions also allows the generation of higher  molecular weight polymers, besides increasing the reaction rate and obviating the  solvent removal step53;64. After polymerization, PbAE can be precipitated, normally in cold diethyl ether,  hexane42, ether65 or ethyl ether58 and/or then dried under vacuum57;65. Frequently, PbAEs are immediately used or stored in the cold conditions (4 _C52;66;67, 0 _C62, or  -20 _C68–70). Some PbAEs should be also kept airproof due to its strong moisture  absorption ability and easy degradation71. Concerning to the biodegradation and biocompatibility, PbAEs have been shown  generally to possess low cytotoxicity and good biocompatibility42;52;61;55;72. Different  studies have suggested that PbAEs are significantly less toxic than currently available  cationic polymers, such as, PEI and PLL51;64. Nevertheless, the increase of the  number of carbons in the backbone or side chain is associated to the increase of the  cytotoxicity73. PbAE degrade under physiological conditions via hydrolysis of their  backbone ester bonds to yield small molecular weight b-amino acids biologically  inert derivatives42;51;55;74. Some results revealed that the degradation rate of poly(b  amino ester)s was highly dependent on the hydrophilicity of the polymer, i.e., the  more hydrophilic the polymer is, the faster the degradation occurs75;76. In Table 1.4 are summarized the main characteristic of PbAEs which make them  a promising polymeric non-viral vector for gene delivery. Combinatorial libraries a fast and efficient way to evaluate different poly(bamino ester)s A fast and efficient way to study the relationships between structure and function  in particular material that could be prepared with different reagents is using combinatorial  libraries. Due to promising preliminar results of PbAEs as non-viral vectors,  Langer research group reported a parallel approach for the synthesis of hundreds of  PbAEs with different structures and the application of these libraries to a rapid and  high throughput identification of new transfection reagents and structure-function trends. For this purpose, major contributions have been reported52;53;57;66;67;72;75;77;78  not only exploring the possible structure/function relationships, but also imposing  an assortment of monomers (amines were denoted by numbers and acrylates by latin  alphabet letters) used in order to facilitate cataloging of different PbAEs (Table 1.5  and Tables A.1 and A.2 (Appendix A)). The first initial library screening was synthesized in 2001 by Lynn51. 140 Different  PbAEs from 7 diacrylates and 20 amines were prepared with molecular weights  between 2,000 and 50,000 g.mol-1. From this, polymers C93 (Mw = 3180 g.mol-1) and  G28 (Mw = 9170 g.mol-1) revealing transfection levels 4-8 times higher than control  experiments employing PEI. At same time, it was observed that for transfection efficiency,  high molecular weight was not an important parameter. This work was then  completed in 2003 by Akinc57, where biophysical properties and the ability of each  polymer/DNA complex to overcome important cellular barriers to gene deliver were investigated. As previous experiments, complexes formed from polymers C93 and  G28, revealed higher levels of internalization compared to †naked† DNA, displaying  18- and 32-fold more internalization, respectively. In contrast, the majority of the  polyplexes were found to be uptake-limited. Regarding d iameter and zeta potential,  out of 10 polymer/DNA complexes with the highest internalization rates, all  had diameters lower than 250 nm and 9 had positive zeta potentials. By measuring  the pH environment of delivered DNA through fluorescence-based flow cytometry  protocol using plasmid DNA covalently labeled with fluorescein (pH sensitive) and  Cy5 (pH insensitive) it was possible to investigate the lysosomal trafficking of the  polyplexes. The results demonstrated that complexes based on polymers C93 and  G28 were found to have near neutral pH measurements, indicating that they were  able to avoid acidic lysosomal trafficking. In the same year, Akinc64 studied the  effect of polymer molecular weight, polymer chain end-group, and polymer/DNA  ratios on in vitro gene delivery. For this purpose, 12 different structures were synthesized  based only in two different PbAE (C28 prepared from 1,4-butanediol diacrylate  and 1-aminobutanol and E28 prepared from 1,6 -hexanediol diacrylate and  1-aminobutanol) (Figure 1.6.) These structures were synthesized by varying amine/diacrylate stoichiometric ratios, resulting in PbAEs with either acrylate or amine end-groups and with molecular  weights ranging from 3,350 to 18,000 g.mol-1. Polymers were then tested, using high  throughput methods, at nine different polymer/DNA ratios between 10/1 (w/w)  and 150/1 (w/w). Concerning terminal groups, it was found that amino-terminated  polymers transfected cells more effectively than acrylate-terminated polymers. In  contrast, none of the acrylate terminated PbAEs mediated appreciable levels of  transfection activity under any of the assessed conditions. These findings suggest that end-chains of PbAE have crucial importance in transfection activity. Concerning  molecular weight effect, highest levels of transfection occurred using the higher  molecular weight samples of both amine-terminated C28 (Mw _13100 g.mol-1 and  E28 (Mw _13400 g.mol-1). Regarding the optimal polymer/DNA ratios for these   polymers, it was observed a markedly difference, 150/1 (w/w) for C28 and 30/1 for  E28. These results highlighted the importance of polymer molecular weight, polymer/DNA ratio, and the chain end-groups in gene transfection activity. Moreover, it  has found the fact that two similar polymer structures, differing only by two carbons  in the repeating unit, have different optimal transfection parameters emphasizing  the usefulness of library screening to perform these optimizations for each unique  polymer structure. Meanwhile, in 2003, Anderson52 described, for the first time,  a high-throughput and semi-automated methodology using fluid-handling systems  for the synthesis and screening of a library of PbAEs to be used as gene carrier. A crucial feature of these methods was that all process of synthesis, storage, and  cell-based assays were performed without removing solvent (DMSO). By using these  methods, it was possible to synthesize a library of 2350 structurally unique, degradable  and cationic polymers in a single day and then test those as transfection reagent  at a rate of _1000 per day. Among PbAEs tested, it was identified 46 polymers  that transfect in COS-7 as good as or better than PEI. The common characteristic  among them was the use of a hydrophobic diacrylate monomer. Moreover, in the  hit structures mono- or dialcohol side groups and linear, bis(secondary amines) are  over represented. From data obtained from this library, Anderson67, in 2004, continued  his study developing a new polymer library of >500 PbAE using monomers  that led higher transfection efficiency in the previous studies and optimizing their  polymerization conditions. The top performing polyplexes were asses sed by using  an in vitro high-throughput transfection efficiency and cytotoxicity assays at different N/P ratios. As previously observed, the most promising polymers are based on  hydrophobic acrylates and amines with alcohol groups. Among those, C32 stood  out due to higher transfection activity with no associated cytotoxicity. The efficiency  to deliver DNA was evaluated in mice after intra-tumoral (i.t.) and intra-muscular  (i.m.) injection. The results revealed important differences. While by i.t injection  C32 delivered DNA 4-fold better than jetPEI R , a commercial polymeric non-viral  vector, by i.m. administration transfection was rarely observed. C32 was then assessed  for DNA construct encoding the DT-A (DT-A DNA) deliver to cells in culture  and to xenografts derived from androgen-sensitive human prostate adenocarcinoma  cells (LNCaP). Results showed that DT-A DNA was successfully delivered and the  protein expressed in tumor cells in culture. In hu man xenografts, the growth was  suppressed in 40% of treated tumors. The fact of C32 is non-toxic and it is able to  transfect efficiently tumors locally and transfects healthy muscle poorly turned it as  a promising carrier for the local treatment of cancer. From here, a panoply of results based in PbAE combinatorial library appeared. In  2005, Anderson53, prepared a new library of 486 second-generation PbAE based on  polymers with 70 different primary structures and with different molecular weights. These 70 polymers were synthesized using monomers previously identified as common  to effective gene delivery polymers. This library was then characterized by  molecular weight of polymers, particle size, surface charge, optimal polymer/DNA  ratio and transfection efficiency in COS-7 of polymer/DNA complexes. Results  showed that from 70 polymers with primary structures, 20 possess transfection activities  as good as or better than Lipofectamine R 2000, one of the most effective commercially  available lipid reagents. Results also revealed that, in general, the most  effective polymers/DNA complexes had In 2006, Green79, synthesized, on a larger scale and at a range of molecular  weights, the top 486 of 2350 PbAEs previously assessed52 and studied their ability to  deliver DNA. These PbAEs were tested, firstly, on the basis of transfection efficacy in  COS-7 cells in serum-free conditions, and then, the 11 of the best-performing PbAEs  structures were further analyzed. The transfection conditions were optimized in human  umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) in the presence of serum. In this  study, the influence of the factors like polymer structure and molecular weight, and  biophysical properties of the polyplexes (such as, particle size, zeta potential, and  particle stability throughout time) were studied. The results showed that many of  the polyplexes formed have identical biophysical properties in the presence of buffer,  but, when in the presence of serum proteins their biophysical properties changed differentially,  influencing the transfection ac tivity. Concerning to the size, the results  showed that in spite of all vectors condensed DNA into small particles below 150 nm  in buffer, only a few, such as C32, JJ32 and E28, formed small (_200 nm) and stable  particles in serum. C32, JJ32 and E28 revealed also high transfection activity both  in the absence of serum in COS-7 cell line as in the presence of serum in HUVEC  cell line. Moreover, C32 transfected HUVECs in the presence of serum significantly  higher than jetPEI R and Lipofectamine R 2000, the two top commercially available  transfection reagents. The 3 mentioned PbAEs share a nearly identical structure. The acrylate monomers of these polymers, C, JJ, and E, differ by only their carbon  chain lengths (4, 5, and 6 carbons, respectively). Similarly, amines 20, 28, and 32  differ also by only the length of their carbon chain (3, 4, and 5 carbons, respectively). For example, polymers prepared with the same acrylate monomer (C) in which itwas increased the length of the carbons chain of the amine monomer resulted in  an increased transfection efficacy (C32 (5 carbons) > C28 (4 carbons) > C20 (3 carbons))  of these polymers-based polyplexes. Interestingly, this study reinforced C32  as the lead PbAE vector and revealed other potential two, JJ28 and E28, which previously  showedto be poor vectors. On the other hand, C28 and U28, previously  recognized as an efficient transfection reagent, were found to transfect inefficiently  HUVEC in serum. By constructing a new library of end-modified PbAE, the research  was continued78 in order to understand the structure-function relationship  of terminal modification of PbAE in transfection activity. For this purpose, it was  used twelve different amine capping reagents to end-modify C32, D60 and C20. The  choice of these 3 PbAEs was based in their transfection activity: C32, the most effective; D60, an effective transfection reagent with a significantly different structure  from that of C32; and, C20, a poor transfection reagent but with similar structure  to C32 differing only in the length of the amine monomer. The results showed  that some PbAEs-based vectors (C32-103 and C32-117) were able to deliver DNA by  approximately two orders of magnitude higher than unmodified C32, PEI (25,000  g.mol-1) or Lipofectamine R2000, and, at levels comparable to adenovirus at a reasonably  high level of infectivity (multiplicity of infection = 100). Once again, it was  demonstrated that small structural changes influence greatly gene delivery, from biophysical  properties (such as, DNA binding affinity, particle size, intracellular DNA  uptake) until final protein expression. From these 3 polymers assessed, C20 was the  one who transfected cells much less effectively, although it has seen a remarkably  improvement with end-modifications. As expected, C 32-based polyplexes, based on  C32-103 and C32-117, revealed the higher transfection efficiency enhancing cellular  DNA uptake up to five-fold compared to unmodified C32. Interestingly, and in a  general way, terminal modifications of C32 with primary alkyl diamines were more  effective than those with PEG spacers, revealing that a degree of hydrophobicity at  the chain ends is an added value for these polymers. Another interesting fact in terminal  modification of C32 was that at least a three carbon spacer between terminal  amines is necessary to obtain an efficient gene delivery. For example, results showed  that C32-103 transfection efficiency is 130- and 300-fold higher than C32-102 on the  COS-7 and HepG2 cell lines, respectively. As the molecular weight was the same,  this result demonstrated the critical role of the chain ends in transfection activity. In order to better understand the role of the chain ends in transfection efficiency  a new library of end-modified C32 was synthesized by Zugates80 in 2007 using 37  different amine molecules to end-modify the PbAE. In a general way, it was observed  that polymers end-capped with hydrophilic amine end groups containing  hydroxyls or additional amines led to higher transfection efficiency. On the other  hand, terminal-modifications with hydrophobic amines containing alkyl chains or  aromatic rings proved to be much less effective. Concerning to cytotoxicity, terminal  modification with primary monoamine reagents (independently of functional group  extending from the amine, such as aromatic, alkyl, hydroxyl, secondary and tertiary

The Shackled Continent

1. What are the key themes of the book and what is the author’s opinion on them? The Shackled Continent is a lively, engaging and ultimately hopeful book about Saharan Africa written by Robert Guest. The author analyses the question why Africa still is so poor and reflects the problems in this region like poverty, disease, war, corruption†¦ and it is enlivened by the stories and encounters that he recites, and by the idea, that things need not be this way forever.There are differences of culture and history in these different countries, but again there are similarities of experience that marks out much of the post-colonial period. Corruption is endemic, poverty everywhere, wars are brutal and never-ending, and AIDS daily saps at the lives of people. The author criticises the failure in leadership of most African countries and reflects that Africa still needs to go a long way to improve, but at the end, it will prosper. 2. What did you find interesting in the book? Why?Hon estly I found The Shackled Continent a very interesting book and could not say exactly how much I liked a particular part better than the others, and I've always wanted to know what exactly is happening in this region of the world, which do not stop watching unpleasant images on television and read in newspapers chilling news. But I always wanted to go into this subject without the influences of the media, explained by someone who has experienced firsthand. So if I have to stay with any part of the book, I get the answer that gives the author about the principal African problem.Guest argues it is because African governments have been either rigidly authoritarian or riven by corruption and tribalism. Governments have been wedded to central planning and consequently have failed to develop. Freedom, political and economic, has been denied to millions, and local elites have prospered as their populations have suffered. I'll stick with this idea, as it was one of my concerns before readi ng this book, and now it helps me to understand the problem. 3. What questions would you like to ask the author (at least 3)? Really socialist tendencies of African governments still hobble African economies? -It’s true that aid can help, but it’s always government economic policies and administration that dictates success or failure? -Why developed countries do not more to eradicate the AIDS virus in this region of the world? Can there be any kind of interest behind? 4. Can you suggest solutions to the problems/issues covered by the author? Personally I have some ways to solve the problems described by the author, but I don’t know if could be done someday.To combat poverty, developed countries could do more awareness campaigns for people to make financial contributions of more importance. I'm sure if everyone only donate one euro, things could be better in Africa. The same with the disease. It should be made more drugs collection in wealthy countries to be allo cated in this region. These countries could donate a large scale, as I'm sure they can do it. To fight wars and corruption, developed countries should take a greater role, and send troops if necessary to calm the situation and to monitor and prevent any kind of corruption that can take place in this region.I know that these proposals are not easy to apply, but if we all could agree, I think we could do it. 5. Is there anything you disagree with the author about? We could say that I’m totally agreed with the author of the book, since I haven’t enough knowledge about it to argue with the author. But if I were to argue something to the author, the statement would be made on farmers. Guest said that farmers without credit can’t buy seeds or fertilizer to make the best use of their land. I’m not agreeing with this because I think there must be some kind of subsidy or support from the State to these farmers.I don’t know exactly, because I haven’t a lot of knowledge about that, but I think it would be possible. Another thing is that in the conclusion, the author says something like many Africans say that Africa's problems are another’s country's fault (e. g. USA or European Union), and he disagree with that, but I think that in some way Africans are right, at least in the fact with this trade barrier story. 6. Have you learned anything from the book that helps you to understand the world?Reading this book has helped me to take off my blindfold and understand once and for all what is happening in Africa. That wonderful continent that both can offer and how it seems to be forgotten. I have updated all the injustices that take place on this continent, and the deaf that developed countries are doing about it, and it has helped me to sensibly more with this topic. Reading these kind of books, you realize that people only care about themselves and ignore what is happening behind the barriers of their respective countries.Lif e can be wonderful in developed countries, but we must be aware that there are people who are not as fortunate as us, who live a daily hell and that many of them are alone. We also can help. We must help. 7. Is there anything in the book which you can relate to the degree you are studying? I am studying Business Administration and Management, and I think it's always good to know what is happening in the world and why it is happening, and not just relate to the degree you are doing, but as general culture.With this reading I learned the forms of government in this region and also the type of resources available and inquire into their economies. Now I know that's what a country needs to do to improve and that is what we must avoid to sink. I think all students should read these books to enrich their knowledge and expertise to take are as important or more that you learn in college. Because that's the real world, the world that tomorrow we face.

Lake Allatoona Ecosystem Structure, Function, and Change

The major structural and functional dynamics (processes) of the Lake Allatoona ecosystem has gone through drastic changes over time. Georgia is one of the most authentically distinctly states in the country, composing through the heights and valleys of northern Georgia to a masses of acres of the rural areas in the southern areas; to the marshlands along the coastlines (gadnr. org). According to, researchers more than nine million people who dwells in Georgia, who often creates multiple contention for congenital resource administration. The Georgia Department of Natural Resources is responsible for preserving and controlling the state’s natural resources, including air, and water quality, water quantity, fish and wildlife, forest management, and the ecosystems throughout the state (gadnr. org). There was a time when, Lake Allatoona longleaf pine forests ruled a massive section of the southern area landscape. An estimate of 90 million acres was abode to this ecosystem in southeastern America prior to the establishment of colonies. Particularly as a result of human activity and changed forestry customarily; the recent decrease of naturist fire, longleaf pine forests has been reduced to less than three million acres today. Researchers have established that 187 rare plant species are associated with the longleaf pine ecosystem (27 federally listed as harmful or endangered). Most of these species flourish in the understory of longleaf pine forests because they have acclimated to a regularly-burned environment (gadnr. org). Without fire, many of these species would be choked out by faster developing non-fire-adapted species and over population over the last several decades. How humans may have affected biogeochemical cycles in the Lake Allatoona ecosystem, comprised by impacts to the nitrogen, phosphorus, or carbon cycle. Due to increased population, construction of new roads being developed, and habitat fragmentation, flames regularly seen in southern forests have become drastically decreased. Today, if the Lake Allatoona forest is not burned consciously by humans, it most likely does not burn at all. The lack of fire has caused an abstract in longleaf pine ecosystem forest lands across the south. Today, longleaf pines are established for the most part in limited parcels of land diversifying the territory, rather than large massive forests across the south. There are nine Army Corps facility functioning on the campgrounds, thirteen Corps-operated areas, and on many ecosystem parks around various lakes controlled by city, county, or state agencies (USACE). Allatoona Lake continues to recognize as one of the frequently attended Army Corps lakes in the nation with more than Six million attendees each year. Understanding Lake Allatoona ecosystem structure and functioning has helped the forest industry to develop plans for its administration and restoration planning. The Georgia Department of Environmental Protection (EPD) established one of the most advanced approaches to watershed management and protection in the nation (epa. gov). The Lake Allatoona Watershed was initiated to implement a comprehensive evaluation of ecological (aquatic and physical habitat) and water resource conditions of the watershed. This was accomplished through strict sampling, analysis, coupled with linked watershed and reservoir casting to produce facts and assessments of known quality that will ultimately be used to make sound decisions That support sustainability of the area’s water resources (epa. gov). Environmental impacts were developed based upon the ability of a potential management alternative to increase and/or protect aquatic ecological habitat as well as meet water quality standards. Lake Allatoona ecosystem economic impacts were founded for various management options and were split into two main categories: (1) BMP costs as an indicator of direct economic impacts; and (2) land opportunity costs as an indicator of indirect economic impacts (epa. gov). Human native environment clarification, fragmentation, degradation, and abolition present the enormous harm to natural ecosystems and biodiversity and should be influenced by responsible and adequate accentuations for the future preservation of intact ecosystems. Such computations should be assembled through choices made by various stages of government (epa. gov). All segments of people should get involve to achieve and corporate wildlife and native plant conservation measures that conserve ecosystems and our wildlife inheritance for the coming generations. The implication of species interactions in Lake Allatoona ecosystems management and restoration. According to, the Georgia Forestry Commission, more than 24 million of Georgia's 37 million land-surface acres are forests, making it the extremely authoritative ecosystem in the state. Seen as one of the largest national forest in Georgia is; the Lake Allatoona National Forest is located the North Georgia area (gatech. edu). Wildlife species in North Georgia forests includes American bald eagles, and black bears just to name a few. Georgia's forests landscape are also home to many endangered plant species, such as the large-flowered skullcap, and the persistent trillium. Multinomial affiliations in Georgia, such as Georgia Forest Watch, have increased alertness on issues that threatens the entertainment of the state's forests lands (gatech. du). Astronomic amounts of fertilizers are applied to lawns near many of the ecosystems in Georgia. Excessive portions of phosphorus and nitrogen are the leading actuators of fertilizers to depart into surrounding ecosystems creating enormous amounts of algae growth. This has caused much decreasing of oxygen in our waters, harms aquatic life and disrupts human amusement activity. Native plants; also called genetic plants they ar e plants that have developed over many of years in a precised areas. The native plants have acclimated to the geography, hydrology, and tropics of that woodland (gatech. edu). Most of the native plants occur in regions, that is, many have unfolded concurrently with other exotics. As a consequence, an alliance of native exotic species provides a dwelling for a multitude of indigenous wildlife species such as songbirds, and butterflies throughout Lake Allatoona ecosystem (gatech. edu).References: Georgia Department of Natural Resources.  (2010).  Retrieved from http://www.gadnr.org Longleaf.  ().  Retrieved from http://www.sam.usace.army.milGreen acres Native plants.  (2011).  Retrieved from http://www.epa.gov Smart tech.  (2009).  Retrieved from http://smartech.gatech.edu

Biography of California Senator Kamala Harris

Kamala Harris  was born October 20, 1964, to a black Stanford University professor and a Tamil Indian physician mother. Harris became the first California attorney general with African American or South Asian ancestry after defeating Republican rival Steve Cooley in the 2010 election for the position. Harris,  formerly San Franciscos district attorney, is also the first woman to serve in the role. Kamala Harris announced she was running for president in 2020 on Martin Luther King, Jr. Day, 2019. Fast Facts: Kamala Harris Name: Kamala Devi HarrisBorn: October 20, 1964, in Oakland, CAKnown For: Junior Senator from California; sits on Senate Budget, Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs, Judiciary, and Intelligence committees. First woman, African-American, and South Asian district attorney in San Francisco. First California Attorney General with African-American or South Asian ancestry.Education: Howard University, Hastings College of the LawDistinctions and Awards: Named one of Californias top 75 women litigators by the legal paper The Daily Journal and a Woman of Power by the National Urban League. Awarded Thurgood Marshall Award by National Black Prosecutors Association. Named Rodel Fellow by the Aspen Institute. On the board of the California District Attorneys Association. Early Life and Education Kamala Devi Harris was raised in San Franciscos East Bay, where she attended public schools, worshipped at black churches, and lived in predominantly African-American communities. Her immersion in African-American culture didnt prevent her from being exposed to Indian culture, however. Her mother took Harris to Hindu temples to worship. Moreover, Harris is no stranger to India, having visited the subcontinent on several occasions to see relatives. Her bicultural heritage and travels around the globe have inspired political insiders to compare her with President Barack Obama. While Obama sometimes struggled with identity issues,  as he describes in his memoir Dreams from My Father, Harris evidently didnt experience growing pains in this vein. Harris attended high school in Quebec, where she moved with her mother following her parents divorce. After graduation, Harris attended Howard University, a historically black academic institution. She earned a bachelors degree from Howard in 1986 and then returned to the bay area in northern California. Upon her return, she enrolled at Hastings College of the Law, where she earned a law degree. Following that accomplishment, Harris proceeded to leave her mark on the legal arena of San Francisco. Career Highlights Law degree in tow, Harris began prosecuting murder, robbery, and child rape cases as deputy district attorney for the Alameda County District Attorneys Office, serving as a prosecutor from 1990 to 1998. Then, as managing attorney of the Career Criminal Unit of the San Francisco District Attorneys Office, a position she filled from 1998 to 2000, Harris prosecuted cases involving serial felons. Later, she headed the San Francisco City Attorneys Division on Families and Children for three years. But it was in 2003 that Harris would make history. At the years end, she was elected as the San Francisco district attorney, becoming the first female, black, and South Asian person to achieve this feat. In November 2007, voters re-elected her to the office. During her 20 years as a prosecutor, Harris has shaped an identity for herself as being tough on crime. She prides herself on doubling trial conviction rates for gun felonies to 90 percent as San Franciscos top cop. Also, with Harris as head, the San Francisco District Attorneys office increased the percentage of dangerous criminals sentenced to prison by more than half. But serious crime wasnt Harris only focus. She also tripled the number of misdemeanor cases sent to trial  and prosecuted the parents of truant children, which helped slash the truancy rate by 23 percent. Controversy The San Francisco District Attorneys Office found itself under fire in early 2010 when it came to light that Deborah Madden, a drug lab technician for the city police, confessed to removing cocaine from evidence samples. Her admission resulted in the police labs testing unit closing and pending drug cases being dismissed. The police department also had to investigate cases already prosecuted due to Maddens admission of evidence tampering. During the scandal, it was asserted that the District Attorneys Office knew of Maddens evidence tampering. However, it remains unclear what information the district attorney knew about Madden and when Harris learned of the techs improprieties. The San Francisco Examiner has alleged that the District Attorneys Office knew of the situation months before the public was told of the controversy and before the police chief himself learned of the news. Endorsements and Honors Harris won endorsements from Californias political elite while campaigning for Attorney General, including Senator Diane Feinstein, Congresswoman Maxine Waters, California  Lieutenant Governor Gavin Newsom, and former Los Angeles Mayor Antonio Villaraigosa. On the national stage, Harris had the backing of former U.S. Speaker of the House Nancy Pelosi. Leaders in law enforcement also endorsed Harris, including the then-police chiefs of San Diego and San Francisco. Harris has also won numerous honors, including being named one of Californias top 75 women litigators by the legal paper The Daily Journal and as a Woman of Power by the National Urban League. Additionally, the National Black Prosecutors Association gave Harris the Thurgood Marshall Award and the Aspen Institute chose her to serve as a Rodel Fellow. Lastly, the California District Attorneys Association elected her to its board. Senator Harris In January 2015, Kamala Harris announced her bid for the U.S. Senate. She defeated her opponent Loretta Sanchez to become the second woman of African or Asian descent to hold such a position. As a junior Senator from California, Harris sits on the Senate Budget, Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs, Judiciary, and Intelligence Committees. In 2017, she introduced 13 bills and resolutions, the majority dealing with public lands and natural resources, crime and law enforcement, and immigration. Member of the Resistance Harris is an outspoken advocate for immigrant and women’s rights, and a proud member of the resistance against Donald Trumps presidency. Speaking at the Women’s March in Washington, D.C., on January 21, 2017, the day after Trump was sworn into office, Harris called his inaugural address a â€Å"dark† message. Seven days later, she criticized his executive order barring citizens from terror-prone countries entry to the U.S. for 90 days, deeming it a â€Å"Muslim ban.† On June 7, 2017, during a Senate Intelligence Committee hearing, Harris put some tough questions to Rod Rosenstein, the Deputy Attorney General, over the role he played in the May 2017 firing of FBI director James Comey. As a result, Senators John McCain and Richard Burr admonished her for not being more respectful. Six days later, Harris was again taken to task by McCain and Burr for her hardline questioning of Jeff Sessions. Other Democratic members of the committee pointed out that their own questions had been similarly tough, yet Harris was the only member who received reprimands. The media got wind of the incidents and promptly leveled  accusations of sexism and racism against McCain and Burr. Sources Hafalia, Liz. Judge rips Harris office for hiding problems. San Francisco Chronicle, May 21, 2010. Herb, Jeremy. Senators try to quiet Harris, but she doesnt back down. CNN, June 7, 2017. Herndon, Astead W. Kamala Harris Declares Candidacy, Evoking King and Joining Diverse Field. The New York Times, January 21, 2019.